Referanseliste

Lover og forskrifter

Lov om likestilling og forbud mot diskriminering av 16. juni 2017 nr. 51 (likestillings- og diskrimineringsloven)

Lov om straff av 20. mai 2005 nr. 28 (straffeloven)

Lov om styrking av menneskerettighetenes stilling i norsk rett av 21. mai 1999 (menneskerettighetsloven)

Rettsavgjørelser

HR-2012-689-A

HR-2018-674-A

HR-2020-184-A

HR-2020-185-A

Rt 2012 s. 536

Internasjonale konvensjoner og erklæringer

Den europeiske menneskerettskonvensjon (EMK), CETS No. 005 (04.11.1950, trådte i kraft 03.09.1953)

FNs konvensjon om avskaffelse av alle former for rasediskriminering (RDK), 66 UNTS 195 (21.12.1965, trådte i kraft 04.01.1969)

FNs konvensjon om barnets rettigheter (BK), 1577 UNTS 3 (20.11.1989, trådte i kraft 02.09.1990)

FNs konvensjon om rettighetene til mennesker med nedsatt funksjonsevne (CRPD), 2515 UNTS 3 (13.12.2006, trådte i kraft 03.05.2008)

FNs konvensjon om sivile og politiske rettigheter (SP), 999 UNTS 171 (16.12.1966, trådte i kraft 23.03.1976)

FNs konvensjon om økonomiske, sosiale og kulturelle rettigheter (ØSK), 993 UNTS 3 (16.12.1966, trådte i kraft 3.01.1976)

FNs konvensjon om å avskaffe alle former for diskriminering mot kvinner (KDK), 1249 UNTS 13 (01.03.1980, trådte i kraft 03.09.1981)

Bøker

Abrams, Dominic og Anja Eller, «A temporally integrated model of intergroup contact and threat» i Intergroup Contact Theory: Recent Developments and Future, Loris Vezzalis og Sofia Stathi, red. Abingdon: Routledge, 2016.

Allport, Gordan. The Nature of Prejudice, Addison-Wesley, 1954.

Chakraborti, Neil og Jon Garland, Hate Crime: Impact, Causes & Responses, 2. utg., SAGE Publications, 2015.

Keipi, Teo, Matti Näsi, Atte Oksanen og Pekka Räsänen, Online Hate and Harmful Content. Cross-National Perspectives. Abingdon: Routledge, 2019.

Latané, Bibb og John M. Darley. The unresponsive bystander: Why doesn’t he help? Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall, 1970.

Lenert Hansen, Ketil, «Selvopplevd diskriminering av samer i Norge» i Samiske tall forteller 9 Kautokeino: Samisk høgskole, 2016.

Lenert Hansen, Ketil og Sara With Skaar, Unge samers psykiske helse. En kvalitativ og kvantitativ studie av unge samers psykososiale helse. Tromsø: UiT Norges arktiske universitet, 2021.

Pennay, Darren og Yin Paradies, The role of bystander knowledge, attitudes and behaviours in preventing race-based discrimination. The Social Research Centre, 2011.

Pettigrew, Thomas F. og Linda R. Tropp, When groups meet: The dynamics of intergroup contact. Hove: Psychology Press, 2013.

Wagner, Ulrich og Miles Hewstone, «Intergroup contact» i The Oxford Handbook of Intergroup Conflict, Linda R. Tropp, red. Oxford: Oxford Library of Psychology, 2012.

Tidsskriftartikler

Allnock, Debra og Ruth Atkinson, “’Snitches get stitches’: School-specific barriers to victim disclosure and peer reporting of sexual harm committed by young people in school contexts” Child Abuse & Neglect 89 (2019).

Ashburn-Nardo, Leslie, Alex Lindsey, Kathryn A. Morris og Stephanie A. Goodwin. “Who is responsible for confronting prejudice? The role of perceived and conferred authority”. Journal of Business and Psychology 35 (2019), 799-811.

Bobba, Beatrice og Elisabetta Crocetti, «”I Feel You!”: The Role of Empathic Competences in Reducing Ethnic Prejudice Among Adolescents» Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51, nr. 10 (2022), s. 1970-1982.

Bonam, Courtney M. «Ignoring History, Denying Racism: Mounting Evidence for the Marley Hypothesis and Epistemologies of Ignorance» Social Psychological and Personality Science 10, nr. 2 (2018), s. 257-265.

Coker, Ann L., Patricia G Cook-Craig, Corrine M Williams, Bonnie S Fisher, Emily R Clear, Lisandra S Garcia, Lea M Hegge. “Evaluation of Green Dot: an active bystander intervention to reduce sexual violence on college campuses”, Violence Against Women, 17, nr. 6 (2011) 777-796.

Darley, John M. og Bibb Latane, «Bystander Intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion of Responsibility» Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 8, nr. 4 (1968), s. 377-383.

Ekici, Tufan og Deniz Yucel, “What determines religious and racial prejudice in Europe? The effects of religiosity and trust” Social Indicators Research 122 (2015), s. 105-133.

Farley, Jennifer. “Teachers as obligated bystanders: Grading and relating administrator support and peer response to teacher direct intervention in school bullying.” Psychology in the Schools, 55, nr. 9 (2021), 1056–1070.

Fischer, Peter, Joachim I Krueger, Tobias Greitemeyer, Claudia Vogrincic, Andreas Kastenmüller, Dieter Frey, Moritz Heene, Magdalena Wicher og Martina Kainbacher. «The Bystander-Effect: A Meta-Analytic Review on Bystander Intervention in Dangerous and Non-Dangerous Emergencies» Psychological Bulletin 137, nr. 4 (2011), s. 513-537.

Forsberg, Camilla, “School bullying and the ongoing social dynamics: A thematic analysis of young peoples’ perspectives on a specific bullying case” Children and Society 35, nr. 6 (2021).

Good, Jessica J., Corinne A. Moss-Racusin og Diana T. Sanchez. «When Do We Confront? Perceptions of Costs and Benefits Predict Confronting Discrimination on Behalf of the Self and Others» Psychology of Women Quarterly 36, nr. 2 (2012).

Gulker, Jill. E. Aimee Y. Mark, og Margo J. Monteith. Confronting prejudice: The who, what, and why of confrontation effectiveness. Social Influence, 8, nr. 4 (2013).

Glover, Dylan, Amanda Pallais, William Pariente, «Discrimination as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Evidence from French Grocery Stores» Quarterly Journal of Economics 132, nr. 3 (2017), s. 1219-1260.

Hamby, Sherry,L., Marcela C. Weber, John H. Grych og Victoria Banyard., «What Difference Do Bystanders Make? The Association of Bystander Involvement with Victim Outcomes in a Community Sample.», Psychology of Violence 6, nr. 1 (2016), 91-102.

Haynes-Baratz, Michelle C, Meg A. Bond, Christopher T. Allen, Yun Ling Li, Tuğba Metinyurt.  “Challenging gendered microaggressions in the academy: A social–ecological analysis of bystander action among faculty.” Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 15, nr. 4 (2021), s. 521–535.

Hershcovis, Sandy, Lukas Neville, Tara C. Reich, Amy M. Christie, Lilia M. Cortina og J. Valerie Shan. “Witnessing wrongdoing: The effects of observer power on incivility intervention in the workplace” Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 142, (2017) 45–57.

Hortensius, Ruud og Beatrice de Gelder. “From Empathy to Apathy: The Bystander Effect Revisited.” Current Directions in Psychological Science 27 nr. 4 (2018), s. 249-256.

Hortensius, Ruud, Dennis J. L. G. Schutter og Beatrice de Gelder. «Personal distress and the influence of bystanders on responding to an emergency». Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience 16, nr. 4 (2016) s. 672-688.

Jenkins, Lyndsay N. og Amanda Nickerson. «Bystander intervention in bullying: Role of social skills and gender”. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 39, nr. 2 (2017) 141–166.

Jönsson, Sandra og Tuija Muhonen, «Factors influencing the behavior of bystanders to workplace bullying in healthcare—A qualitative descriptive interview study» Res Nurs Health. 45, nr. 4 (2022).

Kettrey, Heather og Robert Marx, “Effects of bystander sexual assault prevention programs on promotion intervention skills and combatting the bystander effect: a systemic review and meta-analysis” Journal of Experimental Criminology 17 (2020) s. 343–367.

Lenert Hansen, Ketil. «Ethnic discrimination and health: the relationship between experienced ethnic discrimination and multiple health domains in Norway’s rural Sami population» International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 74, nr. 1 (2015).

Liebst, Lasse Suonperä Philpot, Richard Bernasco, Wim Dausel, Kasper Lykke Ejbye‐Ernst, Peter Nicolaisen, Mathias Holst Lindegaard og Marie Rosenkrantz. “Social relations and presence of others predict bystander intervention: Evidence from violent incidents captured on CCTV.” Aggressive Behavior, 45, nr. 6 (2019) 598–609.

Leonhard, Larissa, Christina Rueß, Magdalena Obermaier og Carsten Reinemann. “Perceiving threat and feeling responsible. How severity of hate speech, number of bystanders, and prior reactions of others affect bystanders’ intention to counterargue against hate speech on Facebook”, Studies in Communication and Media 7, nr. 4 (2018) 555-579.

Levine, Mark og Simon Crowther. “The responsive bystander: How social group membership and group size can encourage as well as inhibit bystander intervention”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, nr. 6 (2009), 1429–1439.

Mainwaring, Chelsea, Fiona Gabbert, og Adrian J. Scott.  “A Systematic Review Exploring Variables Related to Bystander Intervention in Sexual Violence Contexts.” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24, nr. 3 (2023), s. 1729-1742.

McMahon, Sarah, Jessica Burnham og Victoria L. Banyard, “Bystander Intervention as a Prevention Strategy for Campus Sexual Violence: Perceptions of Historically Minoritized College Students” Prevention science, 21, nr. 6 (2020) 795-806.

McMahon, Sheila M., Gretchen L. Hoge, Laura Johnson og Sarah McMahon. “’Stand up and do something’: Exploring students’ perspectives on bystander intervention.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36, nr. 7–8 (2018), NP3869-NP3888.

Menolascino, Nicole og Lyndsay N Jenkins. “Predicting bystander intervention among middle school students”. School Psychology Quarterly, 33, nr. 2 (2018) 305–313.

Miklikowska, Marta «Empathy trumps prejudice: The longitudinal relation between empathy and anti-immigrant attitudes in adolescence». Developmental Psychology 54, nr. 4 (2018), s. 703-717.

Mitsopoulou, Effrosyni og Theodoros Giovazolias. “Personality traits, empathy and bullying behavior: A meta-analytic approach.” Aggression and violent behavior 21, (2015) s. 61-72.

Mujal, Gabriela N., Meghan E. Taylor, Jessica L. Fry, Tatiana H. Gochez Kerr, og Nancy L. Weaver. “A Systematic Review of Bystander Interventions for the Prevention of Sexual Violence,” Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 22, nr. 2 (2021), s. 381-396.

Namie, Gary og Pamela Lutgen-Sandvik, «Active and Passive Accomplices: The Communal Character of Workplace Bullying» International Journal of Communication 4 (2010), s. 343- 373.

Ng, Kara, Karen Niven og Guy Notelaers, «Does bystander behavior make a difference? How passive and active bystanders in the group moderate the effects of bullying exposure» Journal of occupational health psychology 27, nr. 1 (2022), s. 119-135.

Nelson, Jaqueline K., Kevin M. Dunn og Yin Paradies. «Bystander anti‐racism: A review of the literature». Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 11, nr. 1 (2011), s. 263-284.

Nickerson, Amanda, Jennifer A. Livingston og Thomas Hugh Feeley. “Measurement of the bystander intervention model for bullying and sexual harassment”, Journal of Adolescence 37, nr. 4 (2014), s. 391-400.

Obermaier, Magdalena, Nayla Fawzi og Thomas Koch. «Bystanding or Standing by? How the Number of Bystanders Affects the Intention to Intervene in Cyberbullying», New Media & Society, 18, nr. 8 (2014) s. 1491-1507.

Paciello, Marinella, Roberta Fida, Luca Cerniglia, Carlo Tramontano og Ellie Cole. “High cost helping scenario: The role of empathy, prosocial reasoning and moral disengagement on helping behavior”. Personality and Individual Differences, 55, nr. 1 (2013), 3–7.

Parrott, Dominic J., Kevin M. Swartout, Andra Teten Tharp, Danielle M. Purvis og Volkan Topalli. “Speak up! Prosocial intervention verbalizations predict successful bystander intervention for a laboratory analogue of sexual aggression”. Sexual Abuse: Journal of Research and Treatment, 32, nr. 2 (2020) 220–243.

Polanin, Joshua, Dorothy L. Espelage og Therese D. Pigott. «A Meta-Analysis of School-Based Bullying Prevention Programs’ Effects on Bystander Intervention Behavior», School Psychology Review 41, nr. 1 (2012), s. 47-65.

Pronk, Jeroen, Tjeert Olthof, og Frits A. Goossens. “Differential personality correlates of early adolescents’ bullying-related outsider and defender behavior.” The Journal of Early Adolescence, 35, nr. 8 (2015) s. 1069-1091.

Reynolds-Tylus, Tobias, Kaylee M. Lukacena og Brian L. Quick. “An application of the theory of normative social behavior to bystander intervention for sexual assault” Journal of American College Health 67, nr. 1 (2019), s. 551-559.

Roberts, Nicola og Heaven Marsh, “A qualitative evaluation of bystander training: What works?”, The Howard Journal of Crime and Justice, nr. 4 (2022) s. 427-443.

Rovira, Alitor, Richard Southern, David Swapp, Claire Campbell, Jian J. Zhang, Mark Levine og Mel Slater. “Bystander Affiliation Influences Intervention Behavior: A Virtual Reality Study”. SAGE Open, 11, nr. 3 (2021).

Sánchez-Prada, Andrés, Carmen Delgado-Alvarez, Esperanza Bosch-Fiol, Virginia Ferreiro-Basurto og Victoria A Ferrer-Perez. «Personal Traits of the People Who Help: The Case of Bystanders to Violence against Women» International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, nr. 20 (2022).

Son Hing, Leanne, Winnie Li og Mark P. Zanna. “Inducing hypocrisy to reduce prejudicial responses among aversive racists” Journal of Experiential Social Psychology 38, nr. 1 (2002), s. 71-78.

Soral, Wiktor, Michał Bilewicz og Mikołaj Winiewski, «Exposure to hate speech increases prejudice through desensitization» Aggressive Behavior 44, nr. 2 (2018), s. 136-146.

Sue, Derald Wing, Sarah Alsaidi, Michael N. Awad, Elizabeth Glaeser, Cassandra Z. Calle og Narolyn Mendez. “Disarming racial microaggressions: microintervention strategies for targets, white allies and bystanders” American Psychologist 74, nr. 1 (2019) s. 128-142.

Thornicroft, Graham, Diana Rose, Aliya Kassam og Norman Sartorius «Stigma: ignorance, prejudice or discrimination?» The British Journal of Psychiatry 190, nr. 3 (2007), s. 192-193.

Vera, Elizabeth M., Sarah Galvin, Fioralba Millon, Rachael Drapcho og Hannah Payne. «Culturally-Motivated Bullying and Bystander Intervention: The Role of Witness Situational Awareness, Intervention History, and Victim Race» Journal of Prevention and Health Promotion 4, nr. 1 (2023), s. 3-30.

Önal, Aleyna, Michael Rapp, Miriam Sebold, Maria Garbusow, Hao Chen, Sören Kuitunen-Paul, Christiane Montag, Ulrike Kluge, M.N. Smolka og Andreas Heinz. «Empathy and the ability to experience one’s own emotions modify the expression of blatant and subtle prejudice among young male adults» Journal of Psychiatric Research 137 (2021), s. 471-479.

Rapporter

Amnesty International Norge, Kvinnelige politikeres erfaringer med netthets, 3. juni 2018.

Analyse & Tall, Ytringsklimaet for skeive på Twitter & Facebook, Amnesty International Norge og FRI, 2023.

Analyse & Tall, Negative holdninger og stereotypier om samer på Facebook, Amnesty International Norge, 2023.

Bohren J. Aislinn, Alex Imas og Michael Rosenberg. The Dynamics of Discrimination: Theory and Evidence. Philadelphia: Penn Institute for Economic Research, rapport nr. 18-016, 2018.

Eggebø, Helga og Elisabeth Stubberud, Hatefulle ytringer. Delrapport 2: Forskning på hat og diskriminering, Institutt for samfunnsforskning, rapport nr. 15, 2016.

Fladmoe, Audun, Marjan Nadim og Simon Roland Birkvad, Erfaringer med hatytringer og hets blant lhbt-personer, andre minoritetsgrupper og den øvrige befolkningen, Oslo: Institutt for samfunnsforskning, rapport nr. 4, 2019.

Fenton, Rachel Anne, Helen L Mott, Kieran McCartan, og Philip N.S. Rumney. A review of evidence for bystander intervention to prevent sexual and domestic violence in universities. Public Health England, 2016.

Kantar, Politiets innbyggerundersøkelse (Kantar, 2019).

Lenz, Claudia, Stian Lid, Gro Lorentzen, Anne Birgitta Nilsen, Peder Nustad og Eirik Rise. Tiltak mot hatefulle ytringer: Kunnskaps- og tiltaksoversikt. Oslo: Holocaust-senteret, 2018.

McBride, Maureen. What works to reduce prejudice and discrimination? – A review of the evidence Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research, 2015.

McDonald, Paula og Michael Flood. Encourage. Support. Act! Bystander Approaches to Sexual Harassment in the Workplace, Australian Human Rights Commission, 2012.

Nelson, Jacqueline, Kevin Dunn, Yin Paradies, Anne Pederson, Scott Sharpe, Maria Hynes og Bernard Guerin. Review of bystander approaches in support of preventing race-based discrimination. Melbourne: VicHealth, 2010.

Norges institusjon for menneskerettigheter. Holdninger til samer og nasjonale minoriteter i Norge. NIM rapport nr. NIM-R-2022-006, 2022.

Norges institusjon for menneskerettigheter. Veileder for utredning av menneskerettslige problemstillinger, NIM rapport nr. NIM-V-2023-001, 2023.

Roberts, Colin, Martin Innes, Matthew Williams, Hasmin Tregidga og David Gadd. Understanding who commits hate crime and why they do it Cardiff: Welsh Government Social Research, rapport nr. 38, 2013.

Politidirektoratet og Oslo politidistrikt, Hatkriminalitet i Norge 2022. Oslo: Politidirektoratet, 2023.

Walters, Mark, Rupert Brown og Susann Wiedlitzka. Causes and Motivations of Hate Crime London: Equality and Human Rights Commission, rapport nr. 102, 2016.

Wessel-Aas, Jon, Audun Fladmoe og Marjan Nadim, Hatefulle ytringer. Delrapport 3: Grenseoppgangen mellom ytringsfrihet og strafferettslig vern mot hatefulle ytringer, Oslo: Institutt for samfunnsforskning, rapport nr. 16, 2016.

Wollscheid, Sabine, Brit Lynnebakke, Lone Wanderås Fossum og Ann Cecilie Bergene, Konsekvenser av rasisme og diskriminering på grunn av etnisitet, religion og livssyn: En kunnskapsoversikt, NIFU, rapport nr. 22, 2021.

Nettsider

Anti-Defamation League, Pyramid of hate, 2018, hentet 09.08.2023 fra https://www.adl.org/sites/default/files/documents/pyramid-of-hate.pdf.

Article 19, Hate speech explained: A summary, 2020, hentet 09.08.2023 fra https://www.article19.org/resources/hate-speech-explained-a-summary/.

Diskrimineringsnemnda, Søk i statistikk: 2022, hentet 09.08.2023 fra https://www.diskrimineringsnemnda.no/klagesaker-og-statistikk/s%C3%B8kstatistikk.

Folkehelseinstituttet, Rasisme og diskriminering kan påvirke helsen, 2022, hentet 17.08.2023 fra https://www.fhi.no/nyheter/2022/rasisme-og-diskriminering-kan-pavirke-helsen/.

Oppøyen, Madeleine Schlyter, En av fem opplever diskriminering, SSB, 7. november 2022, hentet 09.08.2023 fra https://www.ssb.no/sosiale-forhold-og-kriminalitet/levekar/artikler/en-av-fem-opplever-diskriminering.

Right To Be. The 5 D’s of Bystander Intervention, hentet 25.10.2023 fra https://righttobe.org/bystander-intervention-training/.

Ron Slaby, 5 Ways to Foster Cultures of Active Bystanders at Home and in the Community, The Melissa Institute for Violence Prevention and Treatment, 2019, Hentet 30.10.2023 fra https://melissainstitute.org/cultures-of-active-bystanders/.

Soteria Solutions. Bringing in the Bystander for a better & safer college community, hentet 25.10.2023 fra https://www.soteriasolutions.org/bringing-in-the-bystander.

Medieartikler

Strømme, Vidar. «Ekspertkommentar til HR-2020-184-A og HR-2020-185-A, hatytringer på Facebook», Juridika. 15.6.2020. Hentet fra https://juridika.no/innsikt/ekspertkommentar-til-dommer-om-hatytringer-p%C3%A5-facebook.

Methi, Erlend Andreas og Vilde Jalleni Tennfjord, «Hatefulle ytringer – grensen mellom ytringsfrihet og diskrimineringsvern – kommentar til HR-2020-2133-A», Juridika. 27.04.2021. Hentet fra https://juridika.no/innsikt/hatefulle-ytringer-grensen-mellom-ytringsfrihet-og-diskrimineringsvern-kommentar-til-hr-2020-2133-a.

Andre kilder

FNs generalforsamling, Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, UN Doc. A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, 11.01.2013.

FNs komité mot rasediskriminering, General Recommendation 35, Combating racist hate speech. UN Doc. CERD/C/GC/35, 26.09.2013.

Prop. 81 L (2016–2017) Lov om likestilling og forbud mot diskriminering (likestillings- og diskrimineringsloven).